What is Hemlock Society ?

  1  A Movie base on oldest organization in USA
  2  Society of  handicapped
  3  Village of  anemic patient
  4  Painting of ill women










  Ans : 1


 

Derek Humphry founded the Hemlock Society, USA, in 1975.

With a star-studded turnout, comprising the whose-who of Tollywood, ace director Srijit Mukherjee's new film Hemlock Society, having a theme of suicide workshop but in effect celebrating life over death, was premiered at a city plex

Hemlock Society tells the story of a man who runs a workshop where lessons are given on how to commit suicide successfully, his tryst with a self-obsessed girl. The workshop has on its roll professors who demonstrate fail-safe methods in committing suicide.

The idea was derived from an organisation promoting suicide in US in the 80s.


The Hemlock Society in the United States has been in existence for 17 years and has an estimated 25,000 members. It is the oldest organization of its kind on this continent and therefore deserves special attention in regard to just what its leaders have been advocating in regard to euthanasia - as it turns out, the words and actions of Hemlock leaders often indicate a more radical agenda than the public stance of the organization itself.)
Dori Zook, Hemlock Society public relations director, has claimed on this list that Hemlock supports legalization of physician- assisted death only in cases of terminal illness. And Hemlock's website asserts that the Society favors physician-assisted suicide strictly for someone "who is already in the dying process." But there is a glaring discrepancy between this official stance and what prominent members of Hemlock have said and done.
For example, there is this little gem from Hemlock co-founder Derek Humphry's book, Final Exit:

"What can those of us who sympathize with a justified suicide by a handicapped person do to help? When we have statutes on the books permitting lawful physician aid-in-dying for the terminally ill, I believe that along with this reform there will come a more tolerant attitude to the other exceptional cases."

Or take the actions of Hemlock leaders in the case of Elizabeth Bouvia. Writing about the Bouvia case, Humphrey expressed Hemlock's support of the right to voluntary euthanasia for "a person terminally ill, or severely handicapped and deteriorating...." Hemlock Quarterly 14 (1984). But Ms Bouvia was not "deteriorating." Cerebral palsy is not degenerative. The open-ended term "deteriorating" can be made to mean almost anything in order to justify a disabled person's suicide.
Bouvia's lawyers, led by Richard Scott, another co-founder of Hemlock, distorted the nature of her disability, likening her to a terminal patient. "Were Plaintiff Bouvia an 84-year-old woman whose life was prolonged solely by various tubes and numerous machines," they argued in the Riverside Superior Court, "and she sought to end such an existence, it is doubtful that this Court would even be involved....Plaintiff should not be denied that same right merely because she is 26 years of age and does not yet require a machine or machines (other than her wheelchair) to prolong her pitiful existence." Plaintiff's Memorandum, Bouvia v. Riverside County, 14.
A wheelchair is not a life-prolonging machine, nor will Bouvia's cerebral palsy ever require her to use such machines. Advocates of assisted suicide prejudicially twist the facts of disability to make their case.
Bouvia had been through a series of devastating ordeals in the two years preceding her request for help in ending her life: The graduate program in social work at San Diego State University violated her federally protected civil rights. Reportedly, one of her professors told her she was unemployable and that if they had known just how handicapped she was, they would never have admitted her to the program. So Bouvia dropped out of school, and the state Dept. of Rehabilitation repossessed her wheelchair-lift-equipped van. (Instead of urging her to fight this discrimination, Richard Scott declared publicly: "Quadriplegics cannot work.")
Meanwhile, she married and kept her marriage secret from social- welfare authorities in order not to run afoul of the "marriage disincentives" that would have cost her her essential financial aid. She got pregnant, had a miscarriage, separated from her husband, decide to divorce him, and learned that her brother had drowned and that her mother had cancer.
At this point, Bouvia checked herself into the psychiatric unit of Riverside County Hospital and said she wanted help to die.
Scott brought in a doctor, a psychiatrist, and an educational, (not a clinical), psychologist to evaluate Bouvia. Bouvia reported to them the emotionally devastating experiences of the preceding two years. She also said she wanted to die because of her disability. Ignoring all of the emotional blows and discrimination, they concluded that because of her physical condition she would never be able to achieve her life goals, that her disability was the sole reason she wanted to die, and that her decision for death was reasonable. The psychologist was Faye Girsh, the current president of the National Hemlock Society.
More recently, there is this from Janet Good, past president and founder of the Michigan Hemlock. Good has also attained some notoriety by collaborating with Jack Kevorkian in ending the lives of some individuals with nonterminal disabilities.

Washington Post, August 11, 1996: "Pain is not the main reason we want to die. It's the indignity. It's the inability to get out of bed or get onto the toilet, let alone drive a car or go shopping without another's help. I can speak for literally hundreds of people whose bedside I've sat at over the years. Every client I've talked to - I call them 'clients' because I'm not a medical professional - they've had enough when they can't go to the bathroom by themselves. Most of them say, 'I can't stand my mother - my husband - wiping my butt.' That's why everybody in the movement talks about dignity. People have their pride. They want to be in charge."

Many people with disabilities need such assistance in the bathroom, assistance which they are in charge of and which they do not regard as undignified. It's a dying shame that Ms. Good doesn't convey a more respectful attitude toward her "clients." Instead she reinforces and lethally acts out the devaluing attitudes of our society that tell sick or disabled people they lack dignity because they need assistance with basic activities of daily living, and would be better off dead.
Have we really gotten to the point in this country that we will sanction and abet the suicides of people because they can't wipe their own behinds? people who have internalized society's contempt as self-hatred? That Janet Good thinks this justifies facilitating suicides shows what little progress we have made in rooting out disability prejudice.
Ms Good's colleague, Jack Kevorkian, openly expresses even greater contempt for sick and disabled people. He sees us as a drain on society. He told a Michigan Court in August 1990: "The voluntary self-elimination of individual and (sic) mortally diseased and crippled lives taken collectively can only enhance the preservation of public health and welfare."
If Hemlock's leaders really oppose prejudice against people with disabilities, they must publicly denounce Jack Kevorkian's bigotry.
The statements and actions noted above are neither stray, nor taken out of context. RTD leaders, time after time, have demonstrated the same willingness to promote this final "solution" to the problems of people with disabilities. Taken together, these words and deeds mark a clear and consistent pattern of promoting assisted suicide for people with disabilities.
Why, then do RTD leaders now claim to advocate a narrower application of assisted suicide? Perhaps they tailor their message depending on the immediate political climate and who they think is listening.
And one thing more. For the benefit of any RTD advocates reading this, we're not "paranoid." We just pay attention to what your leaders say and do. How come you haven't?

Who was an Indian economist and diplomat and author of "Sino-Indian Conflict and International Politics in the Indian Sub-Continent",

    1  Dr. Abid Hussain 
    2  karan singh
    3  Siddhartha Shankar Ray
    4  Saiyid Nurul Hasan









  Ans : 1

 
 
  
 With Abid Hussain, Haribhakti, J.N. Guzder, Minoo Shroff & Mrs. DRP
- At Indo-Japan Association Meeting, April 1987

Dr. Abid Hussain (26 December 1926 – 21 June 2012) was an Indian economist and diplomat. He was married to Trilok Karki, author of "Sino-Indian Conflict and International Politics in the Indian Sub-Continent", (1977) and has three children. His brother is the actor and mime artist Irshad Panjatan. Dr. Hussain grew up in his hometown Hyderabad, in Andhra Pradesh.

Abid Hussain will be remembered for his achievements in public life

The sudden death of Abid Hussain by a massive heart attack 21.june 2012, was a tragedy for his family. He was in London with his wife Karki (a woman of great charm and intellectual achievement) on way to Washington to be with his daughter Vishaka and died in his sleep, in keeping with the generosity of spirit that marked his life: he would not impose a long illness on his beloved family.

.Dr. Hussain was honoured in 1988 with the Padma Bhushan (awarded to recognize distinguished service of a high order to the nation) and has been at the forefront of India's economic and trade reforms since the 1980s. He chaired six important committees set up by the Government of India covering Trade Policy Reforms; Project Exports; CSIR Review Committee for Development of Science and Technology; Textile Policy of the Government of India; Development of Capital Market; and Small Scale Industry. Of these, the Abid Hussain Committee Report on Trade Policy Reform and the Abid Hussain Committee Report on Small Scale Industries have been regarded as milestones in India’s economic reforms.

At the time of his death, Dr. Abid Hussain was Chancellor of English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad; Chancellor of ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, member on the Board of Trustees, of India Development Foundation of Overseas Indians (Ministry of External Affairs), member of International Panel on Democracy & Development of UNESCO; Prof Emeritus at Indian Institute of Foreign Trade; Prof. Emeritus at the Foreign Service Institute of Ministry of External Affairs; Chairman of Ghalib Academy and Vice President of Rumi Foundation.
He was also President of Katha, Chairman of Research Council of National Institute of Science, Technology & Development Studies (CSIR); India-China Economic & Cultural Council; Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, NOIDA Kendra, Member of the Board of Trustees of the Observer Research Foundation, Member of the Board of Governors of Himigri Nabh University, Dehra Dun and several other cultural organizations. He was a member of the Nehru Memorial Fund; the Asia Society, New York; Population Foundation of India; Foundation for Academic Excellence & Access; Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad; Shankar Lall Murli Dhar Memorial Society; and the Governing Council of Ranbaxy Science Foundation.
In addition, he was President of Lovraj Memorial Trust and a member of Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco and BP Koirala Foundation (Nepal).
Dr Hussain was for nine years Special Rapporteur to UN on Freedom of Opinion and Expression. He was a member of the Constitution Review Commission set up by Government of India. He was a member of the Prasar Bharati Board till April 2001. Till recently Dr. Hussain was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, New York.
During his long standing career he was U.N Adviser on Turkey on Community Development for two years and also Chief of Industrial, Technology, Human Settlements and Environment in the UN Regional Commission of ESCAP, Bangkok for seven years. He has also been Vice Chairman of Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, Chancellor of Central University, Hyderabad and Trustee of the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts Trust. Dr. Hussain presided over several national and international conferences and contributes papers on contemporary issues.
He was an active member of civil society and contributed to contemporary debates on a wide range of issues including globalization, Internet censorship, gender issues, freedom of expression, and cultural relativism.

He must be remembered for the most compelling of his achievements; and these are twofold: his pioneering work on community development and his unwavering support for our economic reforms

Why was he an icon? The reason was that he was helping Turkey with setting up its community development programme, seeking to lift up the rural communities. Abid had been a pioneer in our own community development programmes. It is a sad commentary that today we make much of "new kids on the block" like my colleague Jeffrey Sachs with his village projects which are mostly hype, even ignoring his dramatic failures as with shock therapy in Russia. Instead we need to honour our hero Abid.
But Abid's other principal achievement, for which the nation must honour him, is that, along with the prime minister, he was the one, unwavering proponent of our reforms. He was resolutely, but politely, against the extensive proliferation of senseless regulations and controls: he had seen it at first hand in the commerce assignment. He loved the witticism that the problem in India was that Adam Smith's Invisible Hand was nowhere to be seen. He matched it with his own wit as when, told by an American friend that immigrant Indians were of great benefit to America, he wisecracked: make sure, however, not to get them into your bureaucracy!

Who is the president of Egypt ?

 1  Hosni Mubarak
 2 Muhammad Morsi Isa al-Ayyat
 3 Ahmed Mohamed Shafik Zaki
 4 Hamdeen Sabahi





 Ans : 2





Muhammad Morsi Isa al-Ayyat, born 20 August 1951 is an Egyptian politician who was elected President of Egypt in June 2012.
Morsi was a Member of Parliament in the People's Assembly of Egypt from 2000 to 2005 and a leading figure in the Muslim Brotherhood. He became Chairman of the Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), a political party, when it was founded by the Muslim Brotherhood in the wake of the 2011 Egyptian revolution. He stood as the FJP's candidate for the May–June 2012 presidential election.

On 24 June 2012, the election commission announced that Morsi won Egypt's presidential runoff against Ahmed Shafiq, the last prime minister under deposed leader Hosni Mubarak. According to official results, Morsi took 51.7 percent of the vote while Shafiq received 48.3. Morsi resigned from his position as the head of the FJP after his victory was announced.

 The Jamaat-e-Islami on  celebrated the victory of the Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed Morsi as the president of Egypt.Thanks-giving rallies were organised in different cities and towns of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on the call of the JI provincial president Prof Mohammad Ibrahim.

The main rally was held in Peshawar and was led by the JI provincial general secretary Shabbir Ahmad Khan, district president Bahrullah, Khateeb of the historic Mohabat Khan Mosque Maulana Mohammad Yousaf Qureshi and others. The JI workers’ procession started from the Mohabat Khan Mosque and assembled at the Chowk Yadgar for the public meeting.

The participants were carrying portraits of the founder of Muslim Brotherhood Hasnul Banna, founder of the JI Abul A’ala Maududi and Mohammed Morsi.They were holding placards and banners inscribed with slogans rejoicing at the victory of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and calling for an Islamic revolution.

The JI leaders in their speeches said the victory was a source of inspiration for the Islamic movements across the world. They expressed their optimism for a similar victory of the religious forces in Pakistan.

Later sweets were distributed among the participants of the rally.Similar rallies were also held in Nowshera, Dera Ismail Khan, Batkhela, Mingora, Timergara and other cities and towns.In Batkhela, the rally was led by former MNA and the JI district president Syed Bakhtiar Maani.

 Ending a week of speculation, Egypt has a new president in Mohammed Morsi. The Muslim Brotherhood-backed candidate was declared the winner in the June 16-17 presidential run-off polls, beating rival Ahmed Shafiq - a former prime minister under strongman Hosni Mubarak's regime - by a margin of around 9,00,000 votes. Morsi's victory is an outcome of the pro-democracy movement that started 16 months ago. That his election to the highest civilian office in Egypt breaks a long-running trend of presidents from the country's armed forces, reaffirms the precious democratic gains made during last year's Arab Spring. However, serious challenges remain. Morsi inherits a deeply divided country, a large section of which continues to be fearful of the Muslim Brotherhood's agenda. If he is to become a truly representative president, he must devote himself to upholding the rights of all sections of society, including women as well as Egypt's sizeable Coptic Christian minority.

 But that certainly won't be easy. Following a recent slew of constitutional promulgations by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) overseeing the democratic transition, the new president's powers are to be signi-ficantly curtailed. Besides, having already dissolved the Islamist-dominated parliament elected earlier this year, SCAF not only retains legislative powers until the formation of a new parliament but also has the authority to pilot the drafting of a new Constitution. While this may offset threats to Egypt's secular credentials in the short term, the army must hand over power to the civilian government as promised. Failing to do so would strengthen radical Islamists and could even lead to a civil war. As the most politically and culturally significant country in the Arab world, Egypt must show the way to political reconciliation and a secular Arab democracy.

who was the First woman to Light the Olympic Flame at opening ceromony in Mexico city Olympic Games ?

 ! Norma Enriqueta  Basilio de Sotelo
2  Robyn Perry
3  Swin cash
4 Konstantin Kondylis














 Ans : 1


 
 

 

A sprinter who participated in these Olympics; the first woman to light the main Olympic cauldron.

Norma Enriqueta Basilio (born July 15, 1948 in Mexicali, Baja California) is a Mexican athlete. She often called "Queta Basilio", made history by being the very first woman ever to light the Olympic Cauldron. She was the last one who carried the flame during the 19th Summer Olympic Games in Mexico City on October 12, 1968.
She was a national athletics champion in 80 mts hurdles. She was considered in her times as the best female athlete. She also carried the Olympic torch during the Athens 2004 relay in Mexico City.
Nowadays, she plays very important roles in Mexican politics and sports.

      Mexico 1968 torch
 aluminium fuel used for the final torch was certainly spectacular, but also managed to injure its holder.Runners were also burned by the solid-fueled torch for the 1968 Mexico Games


In Olympia, Greece, on the clear, sunny morning of August 23, 1969, Greek actress Maria Mosxoliou placed a small amount of resin in a vessel containing a concave metal mirror. Reflected rays of intense sunlight had heated the vessel to incandescense, and at 10:30 a.m. the resin ignited and the Olympic Flame flared into existence.
Every detail of the Route of the Forch was carefully planned by the Organizing Committee. It was decided that the Torch should follow the course of Columbus`s first voyage to the New World, thus symbolizing the union of the classic cultures of the Mediterranean with those of America and recalling the places and events associated with this discovery.
The tree principal intermediate points along the Route of the Torch were Genoa, Italy, birthplace of Christopher Columbus; Palos, Spain, the port from which he embarked on his first voyage of discovery; and the island of San Salvador, the first land he touched in the New World.
The Organizing Committee received the colla boration of the national Olympic committees of Greece, Italy and Spain, and through them the cooperation of their respective governments. Contrary to precedent, athletes from each country through which the Flame passed relayed the Olympic Torch within their national territory. (In the past, the host nation provided runners for the entire route.) The runners from the various countries wore identical uniforms designed by the Organizing Committee of the Games. They were completely white, with the exception of the shirt, which was of colors taken from the national flags of the respective countries, and bore a design of the dove of peace and the MEXICO 68 logotype.
After the first lap of the journey-that from Olympia to Pyrgos-runners swept through the towns of Amalias, Patras, Aigion, Xylokastron, Kiaton, Corinth, Megara and Eleusis to Athens, where a special ceremony was held in the Panatheneum Stadium on August 24. The following day the Flame continued on to the port of Piraeus and departed for Italy aboard the Greek destroyer H.H. Navarino.

Who is Mark Zuckerberg's new wife ?

1  Marcella Lentz pope
2  Priscilla chan
3  Melissa joan hart
4  Rooney Mara










 Ans : 2

 
Just in case you were interested in knowing more about the 27-year-old med school grad who got the Facebook billionaire to put a ring on it, here are some tidbits about the new Mrs. Zuckerberg, aka Priscilla Chan.
- Her ivory, laser-cut wedding gown was by designer Claire Pettibone and retails for $4,700. It is available on Pettibone's website.
- A self-proclaimed "simple creature," Chan, a Chinese-American, was born in the Boston suburb of Braintree, Mass. Her Facebook page says: "i like the food network, warm places, sun dried tomatoes and diet a&w."

Ms Chan, 27, was born in the suburbs of Boston, Massachusetts, just a few miles away from her future alma mater, Harvard University. Ms Chan, or Cilla as she refers to herself on Facebook, met Zuckerberg at Harvard in 2003, whilst waiting in a queue to use the bathroom. Years later she would recall her first impression of the man she would eventually marry as “he was this nerdy guy who was just a little bit out there.”

After graduating from Harvard in 2007, Chan moved from the east coast to the west where she worked as a science teacher at The Harker School in San Jose, California. In 2008 she went on to study medicine at the University of California, San Francisco. During her time here she moved in to a rented house with Zuckerberg in the small town of Palo Alto, just minutes away from Facebook’s headquarters. Since moving in together the couple have adopted a Hungarian Sheepdog called Beast.

Ms Chan is an open supporter of President Barack Obama and gay marriage and intends to specialise as a paediatrician after graduating from the University of California last week.

She says she enjoys “simple things” in life and in her spare time Ms Chan listens to contemporary rock bands such as Green Day, the Red Hot Chilli Peppers and John Mayer. She also lists Glee, House, Modern Family and Project Runway as some of her favourite TV shows. When Chan is able to prise Zuckerberg away from his $104 billion company the two spend time walking in parks, rowing, and playing bocce (a form of boules).

It’s believed the couple didn’t sign a prenuptial agreement before Saturday’s marriage.

- The two met at Harvard, where he offered her a job at Facebook. She described him as "this nerdy guy who was just a little bit out there."
- They played Michael Jackson music at their wedding reception.
- The fewer than 100 guests at the wedding were surprised to be at a wedding. They thought they were attending a party to celebrate Chan's graudation from he University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine, where she studied pediatrics.
- Before they wed, the two agreed to some ground rules about their life together, including: "One date per week, a minimum of a hundred minutes of alone time, not in his apartment and definitely not at Facebook."


A new brand of billionaire Bride

Shortly after Mark Zuckerberg tied the knot with longtime girlfriend Priscilla Chan on Saturday, the Twitter jesters came out of the woodwork.

“Mark Zuckerberg has changed his status to ‘Married’,” read one iteration of a popular joke. “Priscilla Chan has changed hers to ‘Jackpot’.”

It seems, though, that the wedding’s timing had little to do with the $16 billion blockbuster Facebook IPO the day before. It wasn’t the social network’s flotation Zuckerberg was waiting for — it was Chan’s medical school graduation, at least according to a guest authorised to speak for the couple. 

“The wedding had been planned for months and the couple was waiting for Chan to finish medical school, but the date of the IPO was a ‘moving target’ not known when the wedding was set.”

The Monday before the public offering, the same day Zuckerberg turned 28, he was in the audience at Chan’s UCSF School of Medicine commencement ceremony. He ‘checked in’ via Facebook, natch, at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts, writing: “I’m so proud of you, Dr. Chan :).”

Dr. Chan was never going to be a stereotypical billionaire’s wife of the many-spouses-of-Donald-Trump variety. The 27-year-old bilingual Mandarin speaker graduated from Harvard in 2007, the year after Zuckerberg would have earned his degree if he hadn’t left to focus on Facebook — or thefacebook, as it was then known.

The two dated on and off during their undergrad years, first meeting in 2004. After Harvard, Massachusetts native Chan spent two years teaching science at the prestigious Harker School in San Jose before beginning her medical studies at UCSF, one of the top programs in the country. She only moved into Zuckerberg’s $7 million Palo Alto pad in 2010.

Chan wasn’t always so certain that she wanted a career in medicine, though — at least according to a 2005 Harvard Crimson article currently making the rounds on social media. Published when Zuckerberg announced he’d be leaving Harvard, the piece includes a brief mention of Chan:

''“Hey Priscilla, do you want a job at the facebook?” Zuckerberg asked a passing friend.

“I’d love a job at facebook,” Priscilla Chan ’07 responded, offering him a Twizzler.''

A job at the social network never materialised, but Chan still wields an influence over Zuckerberg’s work. It was her passion for pediatrics and concern for sick children she met during her training that prompted her now-husband to add an organ donation registry tool to Facebook. As Zuckerberg told ABC’s Robin Roberts earlier this month: “[Priscilla will] see them getting sicker and then all of a sudden an organ becomes available and she comes home and her face is all lit up because someone’s life is going to better because of this.”

Contrary to the golddigger jokes pervading Twitter, Chan won’t be retiring to start a jewelry line or other such vanity project now that she and Zuckerberg are official. She aims to begin her work as a pediatrician later this year.

Chan joins a group of Silicon Valley billionaire spouses who are achievers in their own right rather than kept women or arm candy.

Laurene Powell Jobs earned an economics degree at Wharton then put in time at Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch before completing a Stanford MBA the same year she married the late Apple mogul Steve. She’s the co-founder of natural foods company Terraverra and education nonprofit College Track, and a mother of three. She also serves on the boards of the New America Foundation and Teach for America.

Anne Wojcicki, wife of Google billionaire Sergey Brin, has a degree in biology from Yale and co-founded biotech firm 23andMe, a genetic testing company that gives customers an analysis of their DNA for a relatively affordable price.

Then there’s Melinda Gates, the ultimate power partner. The former Melinda Ann French earned undergrad and MBA degrees from Duke before joining a young computer company called Microsoft in the late ’80s. She helped develop well-known products like the Encarta encyclopedia and the Expedia booking tool — and met the man she’d eventually marry, Bill Gates. Since, she’s taken the lead with the couple’s Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and earned a reputation as one of the world’s foremost philanthropists.

 

The first history book was written by

-
 1. Euclid
 2 Julius Ceasar
 3 Aristotle
 4 Herodotus








 Ans : 4 

 

Herodotus  Ancient Greek:( Hēródotos) was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria (modern day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (circa 484 – 425 BC). He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative. The Histories—his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced—is a record of his "inquiry" ( historía, a word that passed into Latin and acquired its modern meaning of "history"), being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and including a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories were fanciful, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his personal history.
Herodotus   is considered by many to be the father of historical studies in the Western tradition. His history of the war between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states was written about 430 BC. The following excerpt is a description of India.

  The way in which the Indians get the plentiful supply of gold which enables them to furnish year by year so vast an amount of gold-dust to the kind is the following: Eastward of India lies a tract which is entirely sand. Indeed of all the inhabitants of Asia, concerning whom anything certain is known, the Indians dwell the nearest to the east, and the rising of the sun. Beyond them the whole country is desert on account of the sand. The tribes of Indians are numerous, and they do not all speak the same language--some are wandering tribes, others not. They who dwell in the marshes along the river live on raw fish, which they take in boats made of reeds, each formed out of a single joint. These Indians wear a dress of sedge, which they cut in the river and bruise; afterwards they weave it into mats, and wear it as we wear a breast-plate.
 Eastward of these Indians are another tribe, called Padaeans, who are wanderers, and live on raw flesh. This tribe is said to have the following customs: If one of their number be ill, man or woman, they take the sick person, and if he be a man, the men of his acquaintance proceed to put him to death, because, they say, his flesh would be spoilt for them if he pined and wasted away with sickness. The man protests he is not ill in the least; but his friends will not accept his denial--in spite of all he can say, they kill him, and feast themselves on his body. So also if a woman be sick, the women, who are her friends, take her and do with her exactly the same as the men. If one of them reaches to old age, about which there is seldom any question, as commonly before that time they have had some disease or other, and so have been put to death--but if a man, notwithstanding, comes to be old, then they offer him in sacrifice to their gods, and afterwards eat his flesh.
: There is another set of Indians whose customs are very different. They refuse to put any live animal to death, they sow no corn, and have no dwelling-houses. Vegetables are their only food. There is a plant which grows wild in their country, bearing seed, about the size of millet-seed, in a calyx: their wont is to gather this seed and having boiled it, calyx and all, to use it for food. If one of them is attacked with sickness, he goes forth into the wilderness, and lies down to die; no one has the least concern either for the sick or for the dead.
: All the tribes which I have mentioned live together like the brute beasts: they have also all the same tint of skin, which approaches that of the Ethiopians. Their country is a long way from Persia towards the south, nor had king Darius ever any authority over them.
: Besides these, there are Indians of another tribe, who border on the city of Caspatyrus, and the country of Pactyica; these people dwell northward of all the rest of the Indians, and follow nearly the same mode of life as the Bactrians. They are more warlike than any of the other tribes, and from them the men are sent forth who go to procure the gold. For it is in this part of India that the sandy desert lies. Here, in this desert, there live amid the sand great ants, in size somewhat less than dogs, but bigger than foxes. The Persian king has a number of them, which have been caught by the hunters in the land whereof we are speaking. Those ants make their dwellings under ground, and like the Hellene ants, which they very much resemble in shape, throw up sand-heaps as they burrow. Now the sand which they throw up is full of gold. The Indians, when they go into the desert to collect this sand, take three camels and harness them together, a female in the middle and a male on either side, in a leading-rein. The rider sits on the female, and they are particular to choose for the purpose one that has but just dropped her young; for their female camels can run as fast as horses, while they bear burdens very much better.
: When the Indians therefore have thus equipped themselves they set off in quest of the gold, calculating the time so that they may be engaged in seizing it during the most sultry part of the day, when the ants hide themselves to escape the heat. The sun in those parts shines fiercest in the morning, not, as elsewhere, at noonday; the greatest heat is from the time when he has reached a certain height, until the hour at which the market closes. During this space he burns much more furiously than at midday in Hellas, so that the men there are said at that time to drench themselves with water. At noon his heat is much the same in India as in other countries, after which, as the day declines, the warmth is only equal to that of the morning sun elsewhere. Towards evening the coolness increases, till about sunset it becomes very cold.
: When the Indians reach the place where the gold is, they fill their bags with the sand, and ride away at their best speed: the ants, however, scenting them, as the Persians say, rush forth in pursuit. Now these animals are, they declare, so swift, that there is nothing in the world like them, if it were not, therefore, that the Indians get a start while the ants are mustering, not a single gold-gatherer could escape. During the flight the male camels, which are not so fleet as the females, grow tired, and begin to drag, first one, and then the other, but the females recollect the young which they have left behind, and never give way or flag. Such, according to the Persians, is the manner in which the Indians get the greater part of their gold-- some is dug out of the earth, but of this the supply is more scanty.
: It seems as if the extreme regions of the earth were blessed by nature with the most excellent productions, just in the same way that Hellas enjoys a climate more excellently tempered than any other country. In India, which, as I observed lately, is the furthest region of the inhabited world towards the east, all the four-footed beasts and the birds are very much bigger than those found elsewhere, except only the horses, which are surpassed by the Median breed called the Nisaean. Gold too is produced there in vast abundance, some dug from the earth, some washed down by the rivers, some carried off in the mode which I have but now described. And further, there are trees which grow wild there, the fruit whereof is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. The natives make their clothes of this tree-wool.
: The Indians wore cotton dresses, and carried bows of cane, and arrows also of cane with iron at the point. Such was the equipment of the Indians, and they marched under the command of Pharnazathres the son of Artabates.
. The Eastern Ethiopians---for two nations of this name served in the army--were marshaled with the Indians [probably those who currently speak the Dravidian language Brahui, who presently live in Pakistan, west of the Indus River--ed.]. They differed in nothing from the other Ethiopians, save in their language, and the character of their hair. For the Eastern Ethiopians have straight hair, while they of Libya are more woolly-haired than any other people in the world. Their equipment was in most points like that of the Indians, but they wore upon their heads the scalps of horses, with the ears and mane attached; the ears were made to stand upright, and the mane served as a crest. For shields this people made use of the skins of cranes.
: The Medes, and Cissians, who had the same equipment as their foot-soldiers. The Indians, equipped as their footmen, but some on horseback and some in chariots--the chariots drawn either by horses or by wild asses.



 crest. For shields this people made use of the skins of cranes.VII.86: The Medes, and Cissians, who had the same equipment as their foot-soldiers. The Indians, equipped as their footmen, but some on horseback and some in chariots--the chariots drawn either by horses or by wild asses.

where was worlds First Police Force ?

1 London
2 Ancient China
3 Paris
4 Ancient Greece












Ans: 3




The first police force in the modern sense was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city of Europe 


 First attested in English c.1530, the word police comes from Middle French police, in turn from Latin politia, which is the latinisation of the Greek πολιτεία (politeia), "citizenship, administration, civil polity"and that from(polis), "city". In ancient Greece the term  (polissoos), referred to a person who was "guarding a city".
 This term comes from polis + the verb (sōizō), "I save, I keep".


The English were suspicious of any notion of a powerful police that they equated with the Catholic absolutism of France. [1] Louis XIV had established a Royal Police in 1667 under with explicit aim of strengthening royal authority in all fields of life. Public Prosecutors were the King’s agents. By contrast, in England the landowning aristocracy had checked the growth of centralised royal power and the organisation of justice reflected the local power of the landowner as much as that of the monarch. This led to the development of decentralised model of policing in the eighteenth century where the administration of justice and the policing was under local control. For the people, law and crime were rooted in everyday life and community rather than in systems where police and judges represented more distant royal power.
England was unique in having the victim as the initiator of criminal prosecutions and this only declined well into the nineteenth century. It was the victim, not state officials, who initiated investigation and prosecution. In this traditional system of localised, highly personalised justice the main instrument was the court and the trial. Crime detection and policing methods were elementary and crude. Courts waited for matters to be brought before them. This was a system of personal power in which landowners put in a good word for their labourers, something that helped consolidate their personal standing and power in the community. This was not an abstract system of justice but one where justice was perceived in terms of personal relationships and where justice was tempered with mercy.
In the late-eighteenth century, however, this informal, personal system began to break down before the increasing incidence of urban unrest and property crime, especially in London.[2] For the urban middle-classes, rising crime was a symptom of the need for new forms of control of the lower orders. The notion of the ‘rule of law’, an impartial application of the law between different social groups gained ground and displaced the older rural notion of deferential justice. This reflected the changing nature of urban capitalist society in which the relationship between the offender and the victim became more impersonal as the face-to-face society irretrievably broke down. Crime was no longer seen as simply a wrong, a personal interaction between individuals or individuals and their superiors, it became a disruption, in which an offence against the criminal law was a disruption of the public peace and of the effective working of society. This led to a shift from the centrality of the court that had no implications for the working of society to an emphasis on police and crime detection to minimise disruption to the working of society.
Fears of a continental style of a state-controlled national police force remained and greatly increased during the Napoleonic Wars, when reported excesses of the militaristic gendarmerie were prominently reported in British newspapers and journals. Although this traditional fear was anathema to the English gentry and their notion of liberty, the urban middle-classes had a very different view of the problem of security.

The squirearchy might treasure the discretion which the old system allowed them, to choose among a variety of punishments ranging from an informal reprimand to death; but the urban shopkeeper wanted something which would efficiently protect his commercial property.

The ruling classes increasingly feared the anarchy of the city and a war of all against all, a fear that reached its peak in the 1790s when they viewed events in France. This fear was a diffuse concern with political disorder, lack of the correct habits of restraint and obedience and criminality that merged into one another in a general fear of disorder. This was later eloquently expressed in the Tory Blackwood’s Magazine that warned

...the restraints of character, relationship and vicinity are... lost in the crowd...Multitudes remove responsibility without weakening passion

Police reformers, such as John Fielding and Patrick Colquhoun and the commercial and propertied middle-classes increasingly advocated rigorous control and surveillance of the lower classes by a more systematically organised and coordinated police force.[5] Such proposals were vehemently opposed by the gentry and the emerging industrial working-class that feared that the government would form a powerful, centralised police force to ride roughshod over their liberties. With the crucial support of Tory backbenchers, they resisted efforts to establish French-style police methods in England. The most important development was the Middlesex Justices Act of 1792 that appointed stipendiary or paid magistrates in charge of small police forces. But the predominantly local system of policing was still in place in the 1820s.
Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects". The notion of a "prefect" in China has existed for thousands of years. The prefecture system developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period.
In Ancient China, prefects were government officials appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the head of state, usually the emperor of the dynasty. The prefects oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction.

 In Ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police. In Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves (the  "rod-bearers") was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves.

In most of the Roman Empire, the Army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to provide some extra security. Magistrates such as procurators fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and manage the prosecution themselves.
Under the reign of Augustus, when the capital had grown to almost one million inhabitants, 14 wards were created; the wards were protected by seven squads of 1,000 men called "vigiles", who acted as firemen and nightwatchmen. Their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy duty anti-riot force and the even the Praetorian Guard if necessary.




In Brazil  1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the seventeenth century, most "capitanias" already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, due to the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.








authority and employment period.
In Ancient China, prefects were government officials appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the head of state, usually the emperor of the dynasty. The prefects oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction